THE 1990S CHINESE DEBATE ON SOVIET FEDERALISM AND THE CONCEPT OF THE CHINESE NATION
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Abstract
The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 has had a profound impact on China’s nationality politics. In the 1990s, Chinese scholars reviewed extensively on the intrinsic problems of Soviet federal system, which was deemed as one of the fundamental agents in triggering the downfall. They argued strongly that federalism was not feasible for China and discussed on how to dilute its influence on the country in the future. Moreover, the concept of zhonghua minzu (the Chinese nation) coined by Chinese anthropologist Fei Xiaotong in 1988 was also introduced to the 1990s Chinese debate. Chinese scholars argued, while the Soviet style of federalism contributing to lax national cohesion, the notion of the Chinese nation could provide fresh impetus in strengthening the Chinese common national identity and maintaining state unity, against the negative repercussions of the demise of the Soviet empire. The 1990s Chinese discussions on Soviet federal system and its consequences could be summarized as the following points: federalism might awaken and strengthen ethnic national identities, which pose a danger to state unity; federalism is a product of Western democracy, and it requires certain power sharing with local regions, which might weaken the central control; federal design is not in compatible with Chinese tradition of state supremacy and grand unification; the lesson of the collapse of Soviet federal system for China is that only a strong central authority like the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) could have the capacity to maintain state unity and sovereignty. Moreover, the Chinese debate on the concept of the Chinese nation was not only about how to strengthen national cohesiveness against the negative precedent of the Soviet collapse. The debate was followed by some CCP-sanctioned state manoeuvres in the 1990s, such as promoting and unifying the use of Mandarin language in China and intensifying the patriotic education, thus reinforcing the national identity of being Chinese among various ethnic groups. Moreover, the goal of those scholarly writings and official initiatives aimed to make Chinese people recognize that the socialist path and one-party rule are the common destinies of the country, and only those could build and ensure national cohesiveness. Those scholarly writings aimed to convince Chinese people that socialism and one–party rule were the common destinies of the country, and only those could ensure national cohesiveness. They made the communist regime the representative of China’s national interests and thus justified its dictatorship in China. The article will not only analyse the Chinese post–mortem on Soviet nationality politics, but also study the interplay of scholarly writings and political decision making on China’s nationality issues, and answer the question of what China learned from the Soviet experience and how it changed its national politics to adapt to the post–communist world.
How to Cite
Jie, L. (2021). THE 1990S CHINESE DEBATE ON SOVIET FEDERALISM AND THE CONCEPT OF THE CHINESE NATION. Chinese Studies, (3), 60-82. https://doi.org/10.51198/chinesest2021.03.060
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Keywords
China, the Soviet Union, federalism, the Chinese nation, communism, nationalities, ethnic minorities, autonomy, independence
References
Aldan. (1993), “Shehui zhuyiyu minzu wenti” [Socialism and Nationality Questions], Heilongjiang minzu congkan (Heilongjiang National Series), No. 2, pp. 17–20.
Bkra Shis Dbang Phyug. (1984), “Jingyibu fazhan woguo shehui zhuyi minzu guanxi” [To Further Develop Our Socialist Nationality Relations], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 3, pp. 2–4.
Cao Siyou. (September 1, 1980), “Guojia jinnianqi shezhi zhiyuan bufada diqu fazhan zijin” [The State Will Set Up Funds for Development in Aiding Backward Regions This Year], Renmin ribao, p. 5.
Chang Qing. (1996), Sulian minzu wenti yanjiu [Study on Ethnic Questions of the USSR], Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe.
Chen Kuiyuan. (1991), “Zhongya minzu gongheguo dezujian” [Founding of the Central Asian Republics], Shijian (Practice), No. 10, pp. 17–18.
Chen Lianbi. (1995), “Guanyu shuangchong zhuquan guojia lilun yuanzede sikao” [Thoughts on the Theoretical Principle of Dual Sovereignties], Eluosi yanjiu (Russian Studies), No. 1, pp. 78–82.
Chen Lianbi. (1997), “Zhongguo shijie minzu xuehui diliujie nianhui xuyao” [An Abstract of the Sixth Annual Conference of the Chinese Society of World Ethno-National Studies], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 4, pp. 70–71.
Chen Liankai. (1981), “Lunzhongguo lishi shangde jiangyuyu minzu” [On Territories and Nationalities in Chinese History], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 48–51.
Chen Wutong. (July 5, 1982), “Zhengque duidai woguo lishi shangde shaoshu minzu jiqiyu hanzu wangchaode zhanzheng” [To Correctly Understand the Wars between Ethnic Minorities and Han Chinese Dynasties in Chinese History], Guangming ribao, p. 4.
Dong Liang. (July 22, 1997), “Zhonghua minzu yishide xingchengyu fazhan” [Formation and Development of Identity of the Chinese Nation], Guangming ribao, p. 5.
Du Youde. (1989), “Zhongsu minzu zizhi wenti bijiao yanjiu” [A Comparative Study of National Autonomy between China and the USSR], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 58–60.
Fan Wenlan. (1980), “Zhongguo lishi shangde minzu douzhengyu ronghe” [The Struggles among Nationalities and Their Amalgamation in China’s History], Lishi yanjiu (Historical Research), No. 1, pp. 2–4.
Fang Huaping. (1995), “Shilun lengzhan houde minzu fenli zhuyi” [On the Post-Cold War National Secessionism], Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu (The Journal of International Studies), No. 3, pp. 14–18.
Fei Xiaotong. (2009), “Zhonghua minzude duoyuan yiti” [A Chinese Nation with Diversity], in Feixiaotong quanji [Completed Works of Fei Xiaotong], ed. Neimenggu renmin chubanshe (The Inner Mongolian Press), Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, pp. 109–47.
Guo Zhengli. (1984), “Lunminzu quyu zizhifade weida yiyi” [On the Great Significance of National Regional Autonomy Law], Xinjiang daxue xuebao (Journal of Xinjiang University), No. 3, pp. 25–30.
Guo Zhengli. (1987), “Lunlianbangzhi zaisulian jidanyizhi zaizhongguo dekeguan biranxing” [On the Objective Inevitability of Soviet Federal System and China’s Unitary Model], Xinjiang daxue xuebao (Journal of Xinjiang University), No. 4, pp. 1–8.
Hu Yan. (January 20, 1992), “Minzu lilun yanjiu zongshu” [Summarization on Nationality Theoretical Research], Guangming ribao, p. 5.
He Weiguang. (1992), “Xiaoyi minzuxue yuminzu diqu xiandaihua” [On Ethnology and the Modernization in National Minority Areas], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 1, pp. 201-204.
Hou Shangzhi. (1992), “Lunjiaqiang minzu diqu dangde jianshede zhongyaoxing jiqi duice” [On the Importance and Strategies of Strengthening the Position of the Party in Ethnic Minority Regions], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 11–15.
Ismail Amat. (1998), Minzu gongzuode tansuoyu shijian [The Exploration and Practice of Nationality Work], Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe.
Jiang Liu. (1990), “Sulian lianbangzhi he minzu guanxi wenti zuotanhui fayan zhaiyao” [Excerpts from Conference on the Soviet Federal System and Its National Relations], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 5, pp. 86–87.
Jiang Ping. (1985), “Liweihan tongzhizai minzu lilun fangmiande zhuoyue gongxian” [Outstanding Contributions of Comrade Li Weihan in National Theory], Minzu yanjiu (Nationality Studies), No. 1, pp. 2–9.
Jiang Ping. (1999), “Guanyu minzu gongzuo wentide jidian kanfahe yijian” [Several Views and Opinions on Nationality Work and Issues], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 9, pp. 8–12.
Jiang Zemin. (2006), “Lunminzu gongzuo” [On Nationality Work], in Jiangzemin wenxuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin], ed. Renmin chubanshe (The People’s Press), Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, pp. 191–93.
Lan Quanbin. (1997), “Gaoyan aigo zhuyihe minzu tuanjiede weida qizhi” [Hold Aloft the Banner of Patriotism and Ethnic Unity], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 13–15.
Lei Zhenyang. (1992), “Sidalin minzu zhengce pingxi” [Evaluation on Stalin’s Nationality Policy], Eluosi dongou zhongya yanjiu (Russian, East European, and Central Asian Studies), No. 4, pp. 13–20.
Li Fangzhong. (1985), “Shitan feieluosizu minzu yishide zhiyue zuoyong” [On the Identity Consciousness of Non-Russian Nationalities], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 1, pp. 52–53.
Li Lin. (1986), “Shilun ‘fuhe minzu’” [On the Compound Nations], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 6–10.
Lin Ruo. (1992), “Yige henyou shidai yiyide yanjiu keti” [A Research Topic that Echoes the Spirit of the Time], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 6–7.
Lin Tao. (October 22, 1998), “Congyayan daoputonghua” [From the Elegant Words to the Common Language], Renmin ribao, p. 4.
Liu Cheng. (1981), “Tantan zhuozhong kefu dahanzu zhuyi wenti” [On Overcoming the Problem of Great Han Chauvinism], Neimenggu daxue xuebao (Journal of Inner Mongolia University), No. 1, pp. 59–62.
Liu E. (1984), “Minzu lilun yanjiu jinxitan” [On the Nationality Theories: The Past and the Present], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 3–8.
Liu Fang. (1984), “Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minzu quyu zizhifa” [PRC National Regional Autonomy Law], in Xinshiqi minzu gongzuo wenxian xuanbian [Selected Works of the New Era Documents of the Nationality Work], ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), Beijing: Zhonggong wenxian chubanse, pp. 235–50.
Liu Gengcen and Chen Lianbi. (1987), “Sulian minzu wenti qianxi” [Analysis of Soviet Nationality Problems], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 3, pp. 38–39.
Liu Shusheng. (1984), “Nuli xuexi renzhen zhixing minzu quyu zizhifa” [To Study Meticulously and Implement Seriously the National Regional Autonomy Law], Minzu gongzuo (Nationality Work), No. 9, pp. 1–8.
Liu Xide. (1996), “Lieningde minzu zijuequan lilunyu qiansulian deminzu fenli zhuyi yundong” [Lenin’s Theory of National Self-Determination and the National Secession Movements in the Former Soviet Union], Eluosi yanjiu (Russian Studies), No. 3, pp. 60–62.
Luo Bingzheng. (1988), “Queli makesi zhuyi minzuguan tuijinge minzude tuanjie jinbu shiye” [Establishing A Marxist Attitude toward Nationalities is A Vital Step toward Strengthening the Unity of Nationalities], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 42–45.
Ma Rong. (1999), “Zhonghua minzu ningjuli dexingcheng yufazhan” [On the Formation and Development of the Cohesive Force of the Chinese Nation], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 2, pp. 1–19.
Ma Yin. (1983), “Guanyu minzu dingyide jige wenti” [Several Questions on the Definition of Nationality], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 5–12.
Mao Gongning. (1986), “Shishu jianchi shishi qiushi yuanzeshi zuohao minzu gongzuode genben baozheng” [The Principle of Seeking Truth from Facts is the Fundamental Guarantee for Doing an Excellent Job in Nationality Work], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 4–9.
Mao Sheng. (May 25, 1984), “Minzu quyu zizhifa bijiang cujing minzu tuanjie jingbuhe fanrong” [The National Regional Autonomy Law Will Certainly Promote National Unity, Progress, and Prosperity], Renmin ribao, p. 3.
Meng Xianfan. (1991), “Xizang: lishiyu xianzhuang” [Tibet: The Past and Present], Zhongguo shehui kexue (Social Sciences in China), No. 4, pp. 174–178.
Mu Lili. (1991), “Sulian minzu weiji tanyuan” [The Origin of Soviet Nationality Crisis], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 6, pp. 29–30.
Pan Yongsheng. (1985), “Zizhi tiaoli chuyi” [On the Regulations of the National Regional Autonomy Law], Minzu luntan (Nationality Tribune), No. 3, pp. 2–5.
Pan Zhiping. (1997), “Minzu wentiyu minzu fenli zhuyi” [The Questions of Nationality and National Secessionism], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 1, pp. 2–4.
Pan Zhiping. (1997), “Zhongguode minzu quyu zizhi zhiduyu suweiaixing minzu gongheguo lianbang moshi” [The Chinese System of NRA and the Soviet Federal Model of National Republics], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 1, pp. 13–15.
Qiao Guanshi. (November 28, 1982), “Kuoda minzu zizhi diqu zizhiquan” [To Expand the Limits of Autonomy in National Autonomous Regions], Renmin ribao, p. 3.
Ren Jiyu. (1992), “Zhonghua minzude shengmingli” [The Vitality of the Chinese Nation], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 10–11.
Sun Yi. (1990), “Dangqian minzu lilun yanjiude jige redian” [On the Several Popular Topics in Contemporary Nationality Theoretical Research], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 11, pp. 18–20.
Sun Zhenyu. (1994), “Shitan shijie minzu wenti fazhande xinquxiang” [On the New Trends of World Nationality Development], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 44–45.
Tian Mengqing. (1989), “Minzu rongheshi yige zirande lishi guocheng” [National Fusion is a Natural Historical Process], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 9–10.
Wang Guodong. (1983), “Minzu tonghuayu minzu ronghe” [National Assimilation and National Fusion], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 12, pp. 42–43.
Wang Lei. (1982), “Minzu dingyiyu hanminzu dexingcheng” [The Definition of Nationality and the Formation of the Han Chinese Nation], Zhongguo shehui kexue (Social Sciences in China), No. 5, pp. 151–158.
Wang Xien. (1997), “Lunzhongguo minzu lilunde xueke zhineng” [Functions of the Academic Course on the Theory of Chinese Nationalities], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 5, pp. 2–5.
Wei Guangming. (1997), “Minzu zhuyiyu dangdai guoji zhengzhi” [Nationalism and Contemporary International Politics], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 54–60.
Weng Dujian. (1981), “Minzu guanxishi yanjiu zhongde jige wenti” [Several Questions Regarding the Research of History of Nationality Relations], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 42–44.
Xu Kui and Jiang Liu. (1994), Sulian jubian yanjiu [Study on the Soviet Turbulence], Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe.
Xu Liming. (1981), “Lunshehui zhuyi shiqishi minzu fanrong shiqi” [Socialist Period is the Period of National Prosperity], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 12, pp. 25–29.
Yang Jingchu. (1994), “Woguode minzu quyu zizhi” [China’s National Regional Autonomy], Minzu yanjiu (Nationality Studies), No. 1, pp. 8–10.
Yang Kun. (1981), “Guanyu minzuxue dejige wenti” [Several Questions on Ethnology], Shehui kexue jikan (Social Science Journal), No. 2, pp. 76–80.
Yang Shengyi. (1985), “Shilun zhonghua minzu gongtong xinli suzhi” [On the Common Psychology of the Chinese Nation], Minzu luntan (Nationality Tribune), No. 4, pp. 3–5.
Yang Yanli. (1998), “Yuyan gaigeyu suliande jieti” [Language Reform and the Collapse of the Soviet Union], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 4, pp. 40–41.
Zhang Daben. (1983), “Guanyu suweiai lianbangzhi hezizhizhi wentide zhenglun” [The Dispute on the Questions of Soviet Federation and Autonomy], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 1, pp. 79–84.
Zhang Jian. (1992), “Minzu yishiyu zuguo yishi” [National Identity and the Identity of Motherland], Minzu gongzuo (Nationality Work), No. 4, pp. 45–47.
Zheng Qun. (1992), “Duiyu zengqiang zhonghua minzu ningjuli xueshu yanjiude jidian yijian” [Several Views on the Research of Strengthening the Cohesiveness of the Chinese Nation], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 8–10.
Zhou Dayi. (September 30, 1992), “Zhonghua minzu juyou feichang qiangde ningjuli” [The Chinese Nation Possesses Very Strong Cohesiveness], Renmin ribao, p. 2.
Zhou Tianzhong. (1980), “Zhongguo gongchandang weishenme yiminzu quyu zizhi jiejue woguode minzu wenti?” [Why Does the CCP Implement the NRA to Resolve China’s Nationality Problems?], Neimenggu daxue xuebao (Journal of Inner Mongolia University), No. 2, pp. 107–111.
Zhou Zhongyu. (1999), “Zhonggong zhuzhang minzu diqu shixing lianbangzhi deyuanyin tanxi” [Analysis of the Reasons of the CCP’s Stand in Advocating the Implementation of Federation in Ethnic Minority Regions], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 33–37.
An Zhiguo. (October 31, 1983), “Strengthening Unity Among Nationalities”, Beijing Review, p. 4.
Cheek T. (2006), Living with Reform: China since 1989, New York: Zed Books.
Dreyer J. (1976), China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Dwyer A. (1998), “The Texture of Tongues: Languages and Power in China”, in Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China, ed. William Safran, Portland: Frank Cass, pp. 60-71.
Ge Wu. (September 26 – October 2, 1994), “Education in Patriotism”, Beijing Review, p. 4.
Gladney D. (2004), Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gladney D. (1996), Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Fairbank J K. (1968), The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, Cambridge : Harvard University Press.
Finley J S. (2013), The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang, Leiden: Brill.
Gleason G. (1990), Federalism and Nationalism: The Struggle for Republican Rights in the USSR, London: Westview Press.
Guan Guihai. (2010), “The Influence of the Collapse of the Soviet Union on China’s Political Choices”, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949-Present, eds. Thomas Bernstein and Hua-yu Li, Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, pp. 505–16.
Heberer T. (1989), China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation?, London: M.E. Sharpe.
Jacques M. (2009), When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the End of the Western World, London: Allen Lane.
Liew L. (2004), “The Nexus between Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration”, in Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China, eds. Leong Liew and Shaoguang Wang, London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 2–14.
Liu Haifan. (April 17-23, 1995), “Press Conference on Tibet”, Beijing Review, pp. 17–18.
Luo Meimei. (June 25, 1984), “Explaining Regional Autonomy Law”, Beijing Review, p. 19.
Mackerras C. (1995), China’s Minority Cultures: Identities and Integration since 1912, New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Marsh C. (2005), Unparalleled Reforms: China’s Rise, Russia’s Fall, and the Interdependence of Transition, Oxford: Lexington Books.
Martin T. (2001), The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Marx K and Frederich Engels. (1998), The Communist Manifesto: A Modern Edition, London: Verso.
Rozman G. (2010), “China’s Concurrent Debate about the Gorbachev Era”, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949-Present, eds. Thomas Bernstein and Hua-yu Li, Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, pp. 449–76.
Shambaugh D. (2008), China’s Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Smith W. (2008), China’s Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation, Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Westad O A. (2012), Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750, London: Bodley Head.
Wilson J. (2007), “The Impact of the Demise of State Socialism on China”, in The Transformation of State Socialism: System Change, Capitalism or Something Else?, ed. David Lane, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 269–85.
Zheng W. (2012), Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations, New York: Columbia University Press. Zhou Enlai. (March 3, 1957), “Some Questions on Policy towards Nationalities”, Beijing Review, p. 19.
Bkra Shis Dbang Phyug. (1984), “Jingyibu fazhan woguo shehui zhuyi minzu guanxi” [To Further Develop Our Socialist Nationality Relations], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 3, pp. 2–4.
Cao Siyou. (September 1, 1980), “Guojia jinnianqi shezhi zhiyuan bufada diqu fazhan zijin” [The State Will Set Up Funds for Development in Aiding Backward Regions This Year], Renmin ribao, p. 5.
Chang Qing. (1996), Sulian minzu wenti yanjiu [Study on Ethnic Questions of the USSR], Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe.
Chen Kuiyuan. (1991), “Zhongya minzu gongheguo dezujian” [Founding of the Central Asian Republics], Shijian (Practice), No. 10, pp. 17–18.
Chen Lianbi. (1995), “Guanyu shuangchong zhuquan guojia lilun yuanzede sikao” [Thoughts on the Theoretical Principle of Dual Sovereignties], Eluosi yanjiu (Russian Studies), No. 1, pp. 78–82.
Chen Lianbi. (1997), “Zhongguo shijie minzu xuehui diliujie nianhui xuyao” [An Abstract of the Sixth Annual Conference of the Chinese Society of World Ethno-National Studies], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 4, pp. 70–71.
Chen Liankai. (1981), “Lunzhongguo lishi shangde jiangyuyu minzu” [On Territories and Nationalities in Chinese History], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 48–51.
Chen Wutong. (July 5, 1982), “Zhengque duidai woguo lishi shangde shaoshu minzu jiqiyu hanzu wangchaode zhanzheng” [To Correctly Understand the Wars between Ethnic Minorities and Han Chinese Dynasties in Chinese History], Guangming ribao, p. 4.
Dong Liang. (July 22, 1997), “Zhonghua minzu yishide xingchengyu fazhan” [Formation and Development of Identity of the Chinese Nation], Guangming ribao, p. 5.
Du Youde. (1989), “Zhongsu minzu zizhi wenti bijiao yanjiu” [A Comparative Study of National Autonomy between China and the USSR], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 58–60.
Fan Wenlan. (1980), “Zhongguo lishi shangde minzu douzhengyu ronghe” [The Struggles among Nationalities and Their Amalgamation in China’s History], Lishi yanjiu (Historical Research), No. 1, pp. 2–4.
Fang Huaping. (1995), “Shilun lengzhan houde minzu fenli zhuyi” [On the Post-Cold War National Secessionism], Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu (The Journal of International Studies), No. 3, pp. 14–18.
Fei Xiaotong. (2009), “Zhonghua minzude duoyuan yiti” [A Chinese Nation with Diversity], in Feixiaotong quanji [Completed Works of Fei Xiaotong], ed. Neimenggu renmin chubanshe (The Inner Mongolian Press), Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe, pp. 109–47.
Guo Zhengli. (1984), “Lunminzu quyu zizhifade weida yiyi” [On the Great Significance of National Regional Autonomy Law], Xinjiang daxue xuebao (Journal of Xinjiang University), No. 3, pp. 25–30.
Guo Zhengli. (1987), “Lunlianbangzhi zaisulian jidanyizhi zaizhongguo dekeguan biranxing” [On the Objective Inevitability of Soviet Federal System and China’s Unitary Model], Xinjiang daxue xuebao (Journal of Xinjiang University), No. 4, pp. 1–8.
Hu Yan. (January 20, 1992), “Minzu lilun yanjiu zongshu” [Summarization on Nationality Theoretical Research], Guangming ribao, p. 5.
He Weiguang. (1992), “Xiaoyi minzuxue yuminzu diqu xiandaihua” [On Ethnology and the Modernization in National Minority Areas], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 1, pp. 201-204.
Hou Shangzhi. (1992), “Lunjiaqiang minzu diqu dangde jianshede zhongyaoxing jiqi duice” [On the Importance and Strategies of Strengthening the Position of the Party in Ethnic Minority Regions], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 11–15.
Ismail Amat. (1998), Minzu gongzuode tansuoyu shijian [The Exploration and Practice of Nationality Work], Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe.
Jiang Liu. (1990), “Sulian lianbangzhi he minzu guanxi wenti zuotanhui fayan zhaiyao” [Excerpts from Conference on the Soviet Federal System and Its National Relations], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 5, pp. 86–87.
Jiang Ping. (1985), “Liweihan tongzhizai minzu lilun fangmiande zhuoyue gongxian” [Outstanding Contributions of Comrade Li Weihan in National Theory], Minzu yanjiu (Nationality Studies), No. 1, pp. 2–9.
Jiang Ping. (1999), “Guanyu minzu gongzuo wentide jidian kanfahe yijian” [Several Views and Opinions on Nationality Work and Issues], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 9, pp. 8–12.
Jiang Zemin. (2006), “Lunminzu gongzuo” [On Nationality Work], in Jiangzemin wenxuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin], ed. Renmin chubanshe (The People’s Press), Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, pp. 191–93.
Lan Quanbin. (1997), “Gaoyan aigo zhuyihe minzu tuanjiede weida qizhi” [Hold Aloft the Banner of Patriotism and Ethnic Unity], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 13–15.
Lei Zhenyang. (1992), “Sidalin minzu zhengce pingxi” [Evaluation on Stalin’s Nationality Policy], Eluosi dongou zhongya yanjiu (Russian, East European, and Central Asian Studies), No. 4, pp. 13–20.
Li Fangzhong. (1985), “Shitan feieluosizu minzu yishide zhiyue zuoyong” [On the Identity Consciousness of Non-Russian Nationalities], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 1, pp. 52–53.
Li Lin. (1986), “Shilun ‘fuhe minzu’” [On the Compound Nations], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 6–10.
Lin Ruo. (1992), “Yige henyou shidai yiyide yanjiu keti” [A Research Topic that Echoes the Spirit of the Time], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 6–7.
Lin Tao. (October 22, 1998), “Congyayan daoputonghua” [From the Elegant Words to the Common Language], Renmin ribao, p. 4.
Liu Cheng. (1981), “Tantan zhuozhong kefu dahanzu zhuyi wenti” [On Overcoming the Problem of Great Han Chauvinism], Neimenggu daxue xuebao (Journal of Inner Mongolia University), No. 1, pp. 59–62.
Liu E. (1984), “Minzu lilun yanjiu jinxitan” [On the Nationality Theories: The Past and the Present], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 3–8.
Liu Fang. (1984), “Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minzu quyu zizhifa” [PRC National Regional Autonomy Law], in Xinshiqi minzu gongzuo wenxian xuanbian [Selected Works of the New Era Documents of the Nationality Work], ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), Beijing: Zhonggong wenxian chubanse, pp. 235–50.
Liu Gengcen and Chen Lianbi. (1987), “Sulian minzu wenti qianxi” [Analysis of Soviet Nationality Problems], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 3, pp. 38–39.
Liu Shusheng. (1984), “Nuli xuexi renzhen zhixing minzu quyu zizhifa” [To Study Meticulously and Implement Seriously the National Regional Autonomy Law], Minzu gongzuo (Nationality Work), No. 9, pp. 1–8.
Liu Xide. (1996), “Lieningde minzu zijuequan lilunyu qiansulian deminzu fenli zhuyi yundong” [Lenin’s Theory of National Self-Determination and the National Secession Movements in the Former Soviet Union], Eluosi yanjiu (Russian Studies), No. 3, pp. 60–62.
Luo Bingzheng. (1988), “Queli makesi zhuyi minzuguan tuijinge minzude tuanjie jinbu shiye” [Establishing A Marxist Attitude toward Nationalities is A Vital Step toward Strengthening the Unity of Nationalities], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 42–45.
Ma Rong. (1999), “Zhonghua minzu ningjuli dexingcheng yufazhan” [On the Formation and Development of the Cohesive Force of the Chinese Nation], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 2, pp. 1–19.
Ma Yin. (1983), “Guanyu minzu dingyide jige wenti” [Several Questions on the Definition of Nationality], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 5–12.
Mao Gongning. (1986), “Shishu jianchi shishi qiushi yuanzeshi zuohao minzu gongzuode genben baozheng” [The Principle of Seeking Truth from Facts is the Fundamental Guarantee for Doing an Excellent Job in Nationality Work], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 4–9.
Mao Sheng. (May 25, 1984), “Minzu quyu zizhifa bijiang cujing minzu tuanjie jingbuhe fanrong” [The National Regional Autonomy Law Will Certainly Promote National Unity, Progress, and Prosperity], Renmin ribao, p. 3.
Meng Xianfan. (1991), “Xizang: lishiyu xianzhuang” [Tibet: The Past and Present], Zhongguo shehui kexue (Social Sciences in China), No. 4, pp. 174–178.
Mu Lili. (1991), “Sulian minzu weiji tanyuan” [The Origin of Soviet Nationality Crisis], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 6, pp. 29–30.
Pan Yongsheng. (1985), “Zizhi tiaoli chuyi” [On the Regulations of the National Regional Autonomy Law], Minzu luntan (Nationality Tribune), No. 3, pp. 2–5.
Pan Zhiping. (1997), “Minzu wentiyu minzu fenli zhuyi” [The Questions of Nationality and National Secessionism], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 1, pp. 2–4.
Pan Zhiping. (1997), “Zhongguode minzu quyu zizhi zhiduyu suweiaixing minzu gongheguo lianbang moshi” [The Chinese System of NRA and the Soviet Federal Model of National Republics], Xibei minzu yanjiu (Northwestern Journal of Ethnology), No. 1, pp. 13–15.
Qiao Guanshi. (November 28, 1982), “Kuoda minzu zizhi diqu zizhiquan” [To Expand the Limits of Autonomy in National Autonomous Regions], Renmin ribao, p. 3.
Ren Jiyu. (1992), “Zhonghua minzude shengmingli” [The Vitality of the Chinese Nation], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 10–11.
Sun Yi. (1990), “Dangqian minzu lilun yanjiude jige redian” [On the Several Popular Topics in Contemporary Nationality Theoretical Research], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 11, pp. 18–20.
Sun Zhenyu. (1994), “Shitan shijie minzu wenti fazhande xinquxiang” [On the New Trends of World Nationality Development], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 1, pp. 44–45.
Tian Mengqing. (1989), “Minzu rongheshi yige zirande lishi guocheng” [National Fusion is a Natural Historical Process], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 9–10.
Wang Guodong. (1983), “Minzu tonghuayu minzu ronghe” [National Assimilation and National Fusion], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 12, pp. 42–43.
Wang Lei. (1982), “Minzu dingyiyu hanminzu dexingcheng” [The Definition of Nationality and the Formation of the Han Chinese Nation], Zhongguo shehui kexue (Social Sciences in China), No. 5, pp. 151–158.
Wang Xien. (1997), “Lunzhongguo minzu lilunde xueke zhineng” [Functions of the Academic Course on the Theory of Chinese Nationalities], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 5, pp. 2–5.
Wei Guangming. (1997), “Minzu zhuyiyu dangdai guoji zhengzhi” [Nationalism and Contemporary International Politics], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 54–60.
Weng Dujian. (1981), “Minzu guanxishi yanjiu zhongde jige wenti” [Several Questions Regarding the Research of History of Nationality Relations], Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao (Journal of the Central University of Nationalities), No. 4, pp. 42–44.
Xu Kui and Jiang Liu. (1994), Sulian jubian yanjiu [Study on the Soviet Turbulence], Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe.
Xu Liming. (1981), “Lunshehui zhuyi shiqishi minzu fanrong shiqi” [Socialist Period is the Period of National Prosperity], Minzu tuanjie (National Unity), No. 12, pp. 25–29.
Yang Jingchu. (1994), “Woguode minzu quyu zizhi” [China’s National Regional Autonomy], Minzu yanjiu (Nationality Studies), No. 1, pp. 8–10.
Yang Kun. (1981), “Guanyu minzuxue dejige wenti” [Several Questions on Ethnology], Shehui kexue jikan (Social Science Journal), No. 2, pp. 76–80.
Yang Shengyi. (1985), “Shilun zhonghua minzu gongtong xinli suzhi” [On the Common Psychology of the Chinese Nation], Minzu luntan (Nationality Tribune), No. 4, pp. 3–5.
Yang Yanli. (1998), “Yuyan gaigeyu suliande jieti” [Language Reform and the Collapse of the Soviet Union], Shijie minzu (World Ethno-National Studies), No. 4, pp. 40–41.
Zhang Daben. (1983), “Guanyu suweiai lianbangzhi hezizhizhi wentide zhenglun” [The Dispute on the Questions of Soviet Federation and Autonomy], Sulian dongou wenti (Matters of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), No. 1, pp. 79–84.
Zhang Jian. (1992), “Minzu yishiyu zuguo yishi” [National Identity and the Identity of Motherland], Minzu gongzuo (Nationality Work), No. 4, pp. 45–47.
Zheng Qun. (1992), “Duiyu zengqiang zhonghua minzu ningjuli xueshu yanjiude jidian yijian” [Several Views on the Research of Strengthening the Cohesiveness of the Chinese Nation], Xueshu yanjiu (Academic Research), No. 1, pp. 8–10.
Zhou Dayi. (September 30, 1992), “Zhonghua minzu juyou feichang qiangde ningjuli” [The Chinese Nation Possesses Very Strong Cohesiveness], Renmin ribao, p. 2.
Zhou Tianzhong. (1980), “Zhongguo gongchandang weishenme yiminzu quyu zizhi jiejue woguode minzu wenti?” [Why Does the CCP Implement the NRA to Resolve China’s Nationality Problems?], Neimenggu daxue xuebao (Journal of Inner Mongolia University), No. 2, pp. 107–111.
Zhou Zhongyu. (1999), “Zhonggong zhuzhang minzu diqu shixing lianbangzhi deyuanyin tanxi” [Analysis of the Reasons of the CCP’s Stand in Advocating the Implementation of Federation in Ethnic Minority Regions], Xibei minzu xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Northwest University for Nationalities), No. 3, pp. 33–37.
An Zhiguo. (October 31, 1983), “Strengthening Unity Among Nationalities”, Beijing Review, p. 4.
Cheek T. (2006), Living with Reform: China since 1989, New York: Zed Books.
Dreyer J. (1976), China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Dwyer A. (1998), “The Texture of Tongues: Languages and Power in China”, in Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China, ed. William Safran, Portland: Frank Cass, pp. 60-71.
Ge Wu. (September 26 – October 2, 1994), “Education in Patriotism”, Beijing Review, p. 4.
Gladney D. (2004), Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gladney D. (1996), Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Fairbank J K. (1968), The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, Cambridge : Harvard University Press.
Finley J S. (2013), The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang, Leiden: Brill.
Gleason G. (1990), Federalism and Nationalism: The Struggle for Republican Rights in the USSR, London: Westview Press.
Guan Guihai. (2010), “The Influence of the Collapse of the Soviet Union on China’s Political Choices”, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949-Present, eds. Thomas Bernstein and Hua-yu Li, Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, pp. 505–16.
Heberer T. (1989), China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation?, London: M.E. Sharpe.
Jacques M. (2009), When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the End of the Western World, London: Allen Lane.
Liew L. (2004), “The Nexus between Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration”, in Nationalism, Democracy and National Integration in China, eds. Leong Liew and Shaoguang Wang, London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 2–14.
Liu Haifan. (April 17-23, 1995), “Press Conference on Tibet”, Beijing Review, pp. 17–18.
Luo Meimei. (June 25, 1984), “Explaining Regional Autonomy Law”, Beijing Review, p. 19.
Mackerras C. (1995), China’s Minority Cultures: Identities and Integration since 1912, New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Marsh C. (2005), Unparalleled Reforms: China’s Rise, Russia’s Fall, and the Interdependence of Transition, Oxford: Lexington Books.
Martin T. (2001), The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Marx K and Frederich Engels. (1998), The Communist Manifesto: A Modern Edition, London: Verso.
Rozman G. (2010), “China’s Concurrent Debate about the Gorbachev Era”, in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949-Present, eds. Thomas Bernstein and Hua-yu Li, Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, pp. 449–76.
Shambaugh D. (2008), China’s Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Smith W. (2008), China’s Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation, Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Westad O A. (2012), Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750, London: Bodley Head.
Wilson J. (2007), “The Impact of the Demise of State Socialism on China”, in The Transformation of State Socialism: System Change, Capitalism or Something Else?, ed. David Lane, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 269–85.
Zheng W. (2012), Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations, New York: Columbia University Press. Zhou Enlai. (March 3, 1957), “Some Questions on Policy towards Nationalities”, Beijing Review, p. 19.